diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
index aed8bf4..ecb68b2 100644
--- a/README.md
+++ b/README.md
@@ -240,16 +240,16 @@ hyphenated field can't be an operand.
 { "format": "{net} x {qty} = {calc(net * qty, 2)}", "net": ["19.99", "5.00"], "qty": ["3", "7"] }
 ```
 
-Renders e.g. `19.99 x 3 = 59.97`: an operand is drawn once per expansion, so the
-operand shown is the operand computed. A non-numeric operand yields `NaN` and a
+Renders e.g. `19.99 x 3 = 59.97`. A non-numeric operand yields `NaN` and a
 division by zero `Inf`; both print rather than fail.
 
 ### Transforms
 
 `{lowercase(x)}`, `{uppercase(x)}` and `{ascii(x)}` rewrite the value of `x` — a
 field, a path or a `..path` — and nest. `ascii` folds Latin letters (`Åsa Öberg`
-→ `Asa Oberg`) and drops any other non-ASCII rune. Like a calc operand, `x` is
-drawn once per expansion, so an email built from a name matches the name beside it:
+→ `Asa Oberg`) and drops any other non-ASCII rune. `x` is held
+([One draw, one spelling](#one-draw-one-spelling)), so an email built from a name
+matches the name beside it:
 
 ```json
 { "format": "{p.first} {p.last} <{lowercase(ascii(p.first))}.{lowercase(ascii(p.last))}@example.com>",
@@ -282,9 +282,9 @@ through a chain.
 
 ### Correlated fields
 
-`{name.field}` reads a path into a sibling, and a sibling read that way is drawn
-**once per expansion**, so several tokens read one row — a locality and the
-postal code that really covers it:
+`{name.field}` reads a path into a sibling, which holds the sibling to one draw
+([One draw, one spelling](#one-draw-one-spelling)), so several tokens read one
+row — a locality and the postal code that really covers it:
 
 ```json
 { "format": "{street} {int(1,99)}\n{place.postal-code} {place.locality}",
@@ -297,11 +297,9 @@ postal code that really covers it:
 
 Renders e.g. `Kungsgatan 35` / `176 99 Stockholm`, never a Stockholm code beside
 Tranås; each row's `weight` says how often it appears. A path is held at every
-level it passes through (`{p.geo.town.name} {p.geo.town.zip}` share the town),
-one path read twice reads one value, and a field no path addresses is drawn each
-time (`{word} {word}` differs). The hold lasts one expansion: each `repeat`
-iteration and each nested template draws again. Every variant of a choice on the
-path must carry the rest of it, so a row missing a field is named at load:
+level it passes through: `{p.geo.town.name} {p.geo.town.zip}` share the town.
+Every variant of a choice on the path must carry the rest of it, so a row missing
+a field is named at load:
 
 ```text
 token {place.postal-code}: field "place": not every variant of this 2-way choice carries "postal-code"; all carry [locality]
@@ -312,14 +310,17 @@ The sub-fields stay addressable — `Fake("address.place.locality")` renders, an
 
 ### One draw, one spelling
 
-A format may not both **render** a level and **read a path into** it — `{p}`
-beside `{p.first}`, `{..cat.net}` beside `{calc(net * 2)}`, or `{q}` beside
-`{p.first}` where `q` renders `{..cat.p.last}` — because the render draws afresh
-while the path reads the held draw, and the two would disagree. Wherever the
-second route sits, it is a load error naming the spelling to use:
+A name any token reads as a path (`{p.first}`) or as an operand (`{calc(net * 2)}`,
+`{uppercase(w)}`) is drawn **once per expansion**, and every other route to it —
+a bare `{p}`, a second bare `{w}`, `{..cat.net}`, a nested template rendering
+`{..cat.p.last}`, at any depth — is a load error naming the spelling to use. A
+name nothing reads that way is drawn each time: `{word} {word}` differs. An
+expansion is one render of one format, so each `repeat` iteration and each nested
+template draws again.
 
 ```text
 token {p} renders a level that {p.first} reads a path into; name the fields you want instead
+token {w} is repeated, and uppercase operand "w" holds "w" to one draw per expansion; write {w} once
 ```
 
 ### Performance
@@ -347,6 +348,11 @@ tokens add cost in proportion to the output.
 - **The shipped data is embedded, not discovered.** A directory a machine happens
   to have would make `--seed 42` machine-dependent. Data still lives in `data/`
   as JSON; `--data-path` layers over it.
+- **A bare reference draws each time; a reference path is held.** `{..p} {..p}`
+  is two draws, as `{word} {word}` is, while `{..p.first}` beside a nested template
+  rendering `{..p.first}` is a load error: a bare token is by contract an
+  independent draw, a path pins its level, and any route into a pinned level from
+  another expansion could show another row.
 - **Samples say what they emit, transforms what they do.** `{upper(2)}` is two
   letters, `{uppercase(x)}` is `x` upper-cased; one name for both would turn on
   whether the argument looks like a number.
diff --git a/node.go b/node.go
index 793c4f7..61566c1 100644
--- a/node.go
+++ b/node.go
@@ -87,13 +87,17 @@ func compileString(s string) (node, error) {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	t := &template{format: s, repeat: 1}
-	t.compileFormat()
+	if err := t.compileFormat(); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
 	return t, nil
 }
 
-// compileFormat compiles the format into ops once every field is in place.
-func (t *template) compileFormat() {
-	t.ops, t.grow, t.bound, t.held = compileOps(t.format, t.refs)
+// compileFormat compiles the format into ops once every field is in place, and
+// applies the fences that need the compiled reads.
+func (t *template) compileFormat() error {
+	c := compileOps(t.format, t.refs)
+	t.ops, t.grow, t.bound, t.held = c.ops, c.grow, c.bound, c.held
 	t.fixed = true
 	for _, o := range t.ops {
 		if o.kind != 'l' {
@@ -103,6 +107,10 @@ func (t *template) compileFormat() {
 	if t.fixed && len(t.ops) == 1 {
 		t.lit = t.ops[0].lit
 	}
+	if err := checkNoOverlap(t.format, t.bound, t.refs); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return checkNoRepeatedRead(t.format, c, t.refs)
 }
 
 func compileChoice(items []any) (node, error) {
@@ -218,8 +226,7 @@ func compileTemplate(m map[string]any) (node, error) {
 	if err := checkTokens(format, t.fields); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	t.compileFormat()
-	if err := checkNoOverlap(format, t.bound, nil); err != nil {
+	if err := t.compileFormat(); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
 	return t, nil
diff --git a/reference.go b/reference.go
index aac8a1d..0089f23 100644
--- a/reference.go
+++ b/reference.go
@@ -46,8 +46,7 @@ func linkRefs(root map[string]node) error {
 			t.fields[key] = target
 			t.refs[name] = key
 		}
-		t.compileFormat()
-		if err := checkNoOverlap(t.format, t.bound, t.refs); err != nil {
+		if err := t.compileFormat(); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("%s: %w", path, err)
 		}
 		return nil
diff --git a/template.go b/template.go
index fd6bb61..9c2e3a9 100644
--- a/template.go
+++ b/template.go
@@ -363,38 +363,69 @@ type op struct {
 	operands []arm
 }
 
-// compileOps turns a format string into ops, and returns the size of its literal
-// text to size the render buffer, plus two sets. bound is the levels the format
-// addresses by dotted path, each mapped to the first path reading it, which is what
-// the overlap fences name. held is every name drawn once per expansion — those
-// levels, plus the fields an operand reads, so an operand shown is the operand
-// computed. Both are nil when the format needs neither, so data that uses neither
-// carries no render-time cost. Call checkTokens first: it is what proves the scan
-// and every token are valid.
-func compileOps(format string, refs map[string]string) ([]op, int, map[string]string, map[string]bool) {
-	var ops []op
-	var lit strings.Builder
-	var bound map[string]string
-	var held map[string]bool
-	grow := 0
-	hold := func(a arm) {
-		if held == nil {
-			held = map[string]bool{}
+// formatOps is a compiled format: its ops, the size of its literal text (to size
+// the render buffer), and the names drawn once per expansion. bound maps each level
+// a path reads into to the first such path; held is every such level plus the
+// fields an operand reads; holder maps each held name to the first reader holding
+// it, for error messages. The maps are nil when the format holds nothing, so data
+// that holds nothing carries no render-time cost.
+type formatOps struct {
+	ops    []op
+	grow   int
+	bound  map[string]string
+	held   map[string]bool
+	holder map[string]string
+}
+
+func (c *formatOps) hold(a arm, label string) {
+	if c.held == nil {
+		c.held = map[string]bool{}
+		c.holder = map[string]string{}
+	}
+	c.held[a.key] = true
+	if _, named := c.holder[a.key]; !named {
+		c.holder[a.key] = label
+	}
+	if len(a.tail) > 0 {
+		if c.bound == nil {
+			c.bound = map[string]string{}
 		}
-		held[a.key] = true
-		if len(a.tail) > 0 {
-			if bound == nil {
-				bound = map[string]string{}
-			}
-			if _, named := bound[a.key]; !named {
-				bound[a.key] = a.name // the first path reading it, for error messages
-			}
+		if _, named := c.bound[a.key]; !named {
+			c.bound[a.key] = a.name
 		}
 	}
+}
+
+func (c *formatOps) function(body string, refs map[string]string) {
+	name, args, _ := funcCall(body)
+	var operands []arm
+	for _, operand := range tokenOperands(body) {
+		a := splitArm(operand, refs)
+		c.hold(a, fmt.Sprintf("%s operand %q", name, operand))
+		operands = append(operands, a)
+	}
+	c.ops = append(c.ops, op{kind: 'b', call: builtins[name].prep(args), operands: operands})
+}
+
+func (c *formatOps) field(body string, refs map[string]string) {
+	arms := splitArms(body, refs)
+	for _, a := range arms {
+		if len(a.tail) > 0 {
+			c.hold(a, "token {"+a.name+"}")
+		}
+	}
+	c.ops = append(c.ops, op{kind: 'f', arms: arms})
+}
+
+// compileOps compiles a format string. Call checkTokens first: it is what proves
+// the scan and every token are valid.
+func compileOps(format string, refs map[string]string) formatOps {
+	var c formatOps
+	var lit strings.Builder
 	flush := func() {
 		if lit.Len() > 0 {
-			grow += lit.Len()
-			ops = append(ops, op{kind: 'l', lit: lit.String()})
+			c.grow += lit.Len()
+			c.ops = append(c.ops, op{kind: 'l', lit: lit.String()})
 			lit.Reset()
 		}
 	}
@@ -404,26 +435,38 @@ func compileOps(format string, refs map[string]string) ([]op, int, map[string]st
 			lit.WriteRune(t.r)
 		case 'b':
 			flush()
-			if name, args, ok := funcCall(t.body); ok {
-				var operands []arm
-				for _, operand := range tokenOperands(t.body) {
-					a := splitArm(operand, refs)
-					hold(a) // the builtin renders its operand, so the expansion holds that draw
-					operands = append(operands, a)
-				}
-				ops = append(ops, op{kind: 'b', call: builtins[name].prep(args), operands: operands})
+			if _, _, isFunc := funcCall(t.body); isFunc {
+				c.function(t.body, refs)
 			} else {
-				arms := splitArms(t.body, refs)
-				for _, a := range arms {
-					if len(a.tail) > 0 {
-						hold(a)
-					}
-				}
-				ops = append(ops, op{kind: 'f', arms: arms})
+				c.field(t.body, refs)
 			}
 		}
 		return nil
 	})
 	flush()
-	return ops, grow, bound, held
+	return c
+}
+
+// checkNoRepeatedRead rejects a bare token repeated on a held name: {w} {w} beside
+// {uppercase(w)} would read one draw twice, where {w} {w} alone draws twice. The
+// error names the single-token spelling.
+func checkNoRepeatedRead(format string, c formatOps, refs map[string]string) error {
+	count := map[string]int{}
+	return eachToken(format, func(t ftoken) error {
+		if t.kind != 'b' {
+			return nil
+		}
+		if _, _, isFunc := funcCall(t.body); isFunc {
+			return nil
+		}
+		for _, a := range splitArms(t.body, refs) {
+			if len(a.tail) > 0 || !c.held[a.key] {
+				continue
+			}
+			if count[a.key]++; count[a.key] > 1 {
+				return fmt.Errorf("token {%s} is repeated, and %s holds %q to one draw per expansion; write {%s} once", a.name, c.holder[a.key], a.key, a.name)
+			}
+		}
+		return nil
+	})
 }