Render a repeat iteration in no group, refuse a group that names nothing, key group names by category, and own reference overlap in one fence

README.md

@@ -443,9 +443,10 @@ Renders e.g. `Hej, Pat Smith!`. A reference path into a category is held like a
 record — rather than one format: `{.person.femalefirst} {.person.last}` name one
 person, as do the same two references in sibling fields or a nested template, and
 `{lowercase(.person.femalefirst)}` reads that same draw. Each `repeat` iteration is
-a render of its own, so it draws anew, and a [group](#group) holds a draw apart. A
+a render of its own, in no group, so it draws anew, and a [group](#group) holds a
-bare reference names no field and draws each time: `{/misc.uuid} {/misc.uuid}` is
+draw apart. A bare reference names no field and makes its own picks each time —
-two draws. Rejected at `New`: a path that is
+`{/misc.uuid} {/misc.uuid}` is two draws — while the reference paths inside what it
+renders still read the render's draws. Rejected at `New`: a path that is
 unknown, names a folder, has no folder above, or reads a field not every variant
 of a choice carries, and a reference that leads back to its own value, directly,
 mutually or through a chain.
@@ -453,8 +454,10 @@ mutually or through a chain.
 ### Group
 
 A template may carry `group` to hold its reference draws apart: every reference path
-it renders, however deep, reads the draw of that group, and the templates naming one
+it renders, however deep short of a `repeat`, reads the draw of that group, and the
-group in a render read one draw. A nested `group` names another.
+templates of one category naming one group read one draw. A group name is local to
+its category, so a category another one references never joins its groups by name;
+the unnamed group spans them all.
 
 ```json
 { "format": "{payer} pays {payee}; signed {signature}",
@@ -464,9 +467,11 @@ group in a render read one draw. A nested `group` names another.
 ```
 
 Renders e.g. `Sara Eriksson pays Ebba Lind; signed Eriksson`: the signature reads the
-payer's draw, while the payee is drawn apart. Rejected at load: a `group` of `""` (the
+payer's draw, while the payee is drawn apart. Rejected at load, each naming nothing: a
-default), one on a template that renders no reference path, and a path reading into a
+`group` of `""` (the default); one naming the group its template already draws in; one
-level that carries one.
+on a template that renders no reference path short of a `repeat`, on a `repeat` itself —
+each iteration renders in no group — or on an inline template's root, which nothing
+references. So is a path reading into a level that carries a `group`.
 
 ### Correlated fields
 
@@ -673,6 +678,11 @@ tokens add cost in proportion to the output.
   `person` rather than two copies of it. Only references share: a sibling field is
   local to its own expansion, so a `first` column does not silently bind to a
   `first` in the column next to it.
+- **A group name is local to its category.** A category's groups are its own
+  entities, so a caller naming a group the same way never joins them by accident,
+  and renaming a group inside one file changes no render elsewhere. The unnamed
+  group still spans categories, since facts that belong together across categories
+  must agree.
 - **A record's column set is fixed before the first draw.** Only a category-level
   template is a record: a path descending into a field, or naming a folder or a
   choice, errors. A tail may pass through a choice whose variants carry different

draw.go

@@ -31,10 +31,10 @@ func renderOnce(s *session, n node) string {
 	return render(s, n, drawScope{set: &set})
 }
 
-// in is the scope t renders in: the group it names, else its caller's.
+// in is the scope t renders in: its group where it names one, else its caller's.
 func (sc drawScope) in(t *template) drawScope {
-	if t.drawGroup != "" {
+	if t.groupKey != "" {
-		sc.group = t.drawGroup
+		sc.group = t.groupKey
 	}
 	return sc
 }
@@ -55,8 +55,9 @@ func (sc drawScope) draws() *draws {
 	return d
 }
 
-// groupOf reads a template's "group" (default "").
+// groupOf reads a template's "group" (default ""), which a repeat cannot carry: each iteration
-func groupOf(m map[string]any) (string, error) {
+// renders in no group.
+func groupOf(m map[string]any, repeat int) (string, error) {
 	v, ok := m["group"]
 	if !ok {
 		return "", nil
@@ -67,29 +68,73 @@ func groupOf(m map[string]any) (string, error) {
 		return "", fmt.Errorf("group must be a string, got %T", v)
 	case name == "":
 		return "", fmt.Errorf(`group "" is the default, so it has no effect; drop it`)
+	case repeat > 1:
+		return "", fmt.Errorf("group %q on a repeat names nothing, since each iteration is a render of its own; drop it", name)
 	}
 	return name, nil
 }
 
-// drawCheck fences each template of a scope as a render of its own, remembering which nodes
+// keyGroup keys t's group by the category t sits in, "" for an inline template, so a group name is
-// read a reference path.
+// local to its category.
+func (t *template) keyGroup(category string) {
+	if t.group != "" {
+		t.groupKey = category + "/" + t.group
+	}
+}
+
+// checkNestedGroup refuses a template beneath one drawing in group that names group again, short of
+// a repeat or another group.
+func checkNestedGroup(fields map[string]node, group string) error {
+	if group == "" {
+		return nil
+	}
+	var walk func(path string, n node) error
+	walk = func(path string, n node) error {
+		t, isTemplate := n.(*template)
+		switch {
+		case isTemplate && t.group == group:
+			return fmt.Errorf("%q names group %q, the group this template draws in already; drop it", path, group)
+		case isTemplate && (t.group != "" || t.repeat > 1):
+			return nil
+		}
+		for _, c := range contained(n) {
+			if err := walk(join(path, c.name), c.node); err != nil {
+				return err
+			}
+		}
+		return nil
+	}
+	for _, name := range sortedNames(fields) {
+		if err := walk(name, fields[name]); err != nil {
+			return err
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+// drawCheck fences each template of a scope as a render of its own, remembering which nodes read a
+// reference path.
 type drawCheck struct {
 	reads map[node]bool
 }
 
-func (c *drawCheck) check(path string, n node) error {
+// checkGroup refuses a group that splits nothing: one whose render reads no reference path short of
+// a repeat.
+func (c *drawCheck) checkGroup(path string, n node) error {
+	if t, ok := n.(*template); ok && t.group != "" && !c.readsPath(t) {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%s: group %q splits nothing, since nothing it renders reads a reference path; drop it", path, t.group)
+	}
+	return nil
+}
+
+func (c *drawCheck) checkDraws(path string, n node) error {
 	t, ok := n.(*template)
-	switch {
+	if !ok || !c.readsPath(t) {
-	case !ok:
-		return nil
-	case !c.readsPath(t) && t.drawGroup != "":
-		return fmt.Errorf("%s: group %q splits nothing, since nothing it renders reads a reference path; drop it", path, t.drawGroup)
-	case !c.readsPath(t):
 		return nil
 	}
 	w := newDrawWalk(nil)
 	for _, e := range renderEdges(t) {
-		w.edge(t, e, t.drawGroup, drawRoute{e.reached(), e.label}, "", false)
+		w.edge(t, e, drawAt{group: t.groupKey, route: drawRoute{e.reached(), e.label}})
 	}
 	if err := w.check(); err != nil {
 		return fmt.Errorf("%s: %w", path, err)
@@ -97,14 +142,15 @@ func (c *drawCheck) check(path string, n node) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-// readsPath reports whether rendering n reads a reference path, however deep.
+// readsPath reports whether rendering n reads a reference path, short of a repeat, which renders over
+// draws of its own.
 func (c *drawCheck) readsPath(n node) bool {
 	if r, done := c.reads[n]; done {
 		return r
 	}
 	r := false
 	for _, e := range renderEdges(n) {
-		if a, _, isRef := refRead(n, e.label); (isRef && len(a.tail) > 0) || c.readsPath(e.to) {
+		if a, _, isRef := refRead(n, e.label); (isRef && len(a.tail) > 0) || (!repeats(e.to) && c.readsPath(e.to)) {
 			r = true
 			break
 		}
@@ -116,8 +162,13 @@ func (c *drawCheck) readsPath(n node) bool {
 	return r
 }
 
-// refRead is the reference an edge of n reads, and the node it is bound to; false when the
+func repeats(n node) bool {
-// edge reads none.
+	t, isTemplate := n.(*template)
+	return isTemplate && t.repeat > 1
+}
+
+// refRead is the reference an edge of n reads, and the node it is bound to; false when the edge
+// reads none.
 func refRead(n node, label string) (arm, node, bool) {
 	t, isTemplate := n.(*template)
 	if !isTemplate {
@@ -131,14 +182,13 @@ func refRead(n node, label string) (arm, node, bool) {
 func checkColumnDraws(t *template, columns []string) error {
 	w := newDrawWalk(t)
 	for _, name := range columns {
-		w.walk(t.fields[name], t.drawGroup, drawRoute{spelling: fmt.Sprintf("column %q", name)}, "", false)
+		w.walk(t.fields[name], drawAt{group: t.groupKey, route: drawRoute{spelling: fmt.Sprintf("column %q", name)}})
 	}
 	return w.check()
 }
 
-// drawWalk gathers what one render reads through its draws and what it draws afresh, each by
+// drawWalk gathers what one render reads by reference and what it draws afresh, each by group, for
-// group, for check to compare. record is set for a record's columns, which may not read the
+// check to compare. record is set for a record's columns, which may not read the record back.
-// record back.
 type drawWalk struct {
 	record *template
 	reads  []pathRead
@@ -148,21 +198,28 @@ type drawWalk struct {
 	err    error
 }
 
+// drawAt is where a walk stands: the group it draws in, how the render's root reached it, the
+// reference it last crossed, and whether it renders inside a reference path's draw.
+type drawAt struct {
+	group string
+	route drawRoute
+	via   string
+	held  bool
+}
+
 // drawRoute is how a render reaches a draw: as its author spells it, and the root edge's label.
 type drawRoute struct{ spelling, label string }
 
+// pathRead is one reference a render reads: a path, or a bare reference with no tail.
 type pathRead struct {
-	group  string
+	at     drawAt
-	route  drawRoute
 	a      arm
 	target node
 }
 
 type freshDraw struct {
-	group string
+	at drawAt
-	route drawRoute
+	n  node
-	via   string
-	n     node
 }
 
 type drawVisit struct {
@@ -180,88 +237,105 @@ func newDrawWalk(record *template) *drawWalk {
 	return &drawWalk{record: record, read: map[drawKey]bool{}, seen: map[drawVisit]bool{}}
 }
 
-// walk follows what rendering n renders. held says n renders inside a reference path's draw, so
+// walk follows what rendering n renders. A repeat renders over draws of its own, so the walk stops
-// what it draws belongs to that draw; a repeat renders over draws of its own, so the walk stops there.
+// there.
-func (w *drawWalk) walk(n node, group string, route drawRoute, via string, held bool) {
+func (w *drawWalk) walk(n node, at drawAt) {
-	v := drawVisit{n, group, held}
+	v := drawVisit{n, at.group, at.held}
 	if w.seen[v] || w.err != nil {
 		return
 	}
 	w.seen[v] = true
-	if !held {
+	if !at.held {
-		w.fresh = append(w.fresh, freshDraw{group, route, via, n})
+		w.fresh = append(w.fresh, freshDraw{at, n})
 	}
-	t, isTemplate := n.(*template)
+	if repeats(n) {
-	if isTemplate && t.repeat > 1 {
 		return
 	}
-	if isTemplate && t.drawGroup != "" {
+	if t, isTemplate := n.(*template); isTemplate && t.groupKey != "" {
-		group = t.drawGroup
+		at.group = t.groupKey
 	}
 	for _, e := range renderEdges(n) {
-		w.edge(n, e, group, route, via, held)
+		w.edge(n, e, at)
 	}
 }
 
-func (w *drawWalk) edge(from node, e renderEdge, group string, route drawRoute, via string, held bool) {
+func (w *drawWalk) edge(from node, e renderEdge, at drawAt) {
 	a, target, reads := refRead(from, e.label)
 	switch {
 	case !reads:
-		w.walk(e.to, group, route, via, held)
+		w.walk(e.to, at)
+		return
 	case w.record != nil && target == node(w.record):
-		w.err = fmt.Errorf("%s reads {%s}, which points back at this record; a column cannot read another column — move the shared value into its own category and reference that", route.spelling, a.name)
+		w.err = fmt.Errorf("%s reads {%s}, which points back at this record; a column cannot read another column — move the shared value into its own category and reference that", at.route.spelling, a.name)
-	case len(a.tail) > 0:
+		return
-		if k := (drawKey{group, a.path}); !w.read[k] {
-			w.read[k] = true
-			w.reads = append(w.reads, pathRead{group, route, a, target})
-		}
-		w.walk(e.to, group, route, a.name, true)
-	default:
-		w.walk(e.to, group, route, a.name, false)
 	}
+	if k := (drawKey{at.group, a.path}); !w.read[k] {
+		w.read[k] = true
+		w.reads = append(w.reads, pathRead{at, a, target})
+	}
+	at.via, at.held = a.name, len(a.tail) > 0
+	w.walk(e.to, at)
 }
 
-// check refuses what one draw per reference path cannot answer for: a path read into a level
+// check refuses what one draw per reference path cannot answer for, reads compared in path order so
-// another read renders, and a node drawn afresh beside a path whose draw holds it.
+// which pair is reported does not vary.
 func (w *drawWalk) check() error {
 	if w.err != nil {
 		return w.err
 	}
 	sort.SliceStable(w.reads, func(i, j int) bool {
-		if w.reads[i].group != w.reads[j].group {
+		if w.reads[i].at.group != w.reads[j].at.group {
-			return w.reads[i].group < w.reads[j].group
+			return w.reads[i].at.group < w.reads[j].at.group
 		}
 		return w.reads[i].a.path < w.reads[j].a.path
 	})
-	pins := map[drawKey]pathRead{}
+	if err := w.checkOverlaps(); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	return w.checkFreshDraws()
+}
+
+// checkOverlaps refuses a read of a level beside a path another read takes into it.
+func (w *drawWalk) checkOverlaps() error {
 	for i, level := range w.reads {
 		for _, into := range w.reads[i+1:] {
-			if into.group == level.group && strings.HasPrefix(into.a.path, level.a.path+".") {
+			if into.at.group == level.at.group && strings.HasPrefix(into.a.path, level.a.path+".") {
-				return overlap(level.route, level.a.name, into)
+				return overlapError(level.at.route, level.a.name, into)
 			}
 		}
-		held := map[node]bool{}
-		coverPath(level.target, level.a.tail, held)
-		for n := range held {
-			if _, pinned := pins[drawKey{level.group, n}]; !pinned {
-				pins[drawKey{level.group, n}] = level
-			}
-		}
-	}
-	for _, f := range w.fresh {
-		if r, pinned := pins[drawKey{f.group, f.n}]; pinned {
-			return overlap(f.route, f.via, r)
-		}
 	}
 	return nil
 }
 
-func overlap(route drawRoute, ref string, into pathRead) error {
+// checkFreshDraws refuses a node drawn afresh where a reference path's draw holds it.
-	return fmt.Errorf("%s renders a level that %s reads a path into; name the fields you want instead, or draw them apart with a group", route.spelled(ref), into.route.spelled(into.a.name))
+func (w *drawWalk) checkFreshDraws() error {
+	pins := map[drawKey]pathRead{}
+	for _, r := range w.reads {
+		if len(r.a.tail) == 0 {
+			continue
+		}
+		held := map[node]bool{}
+		coverPath(r.target, r.a.tail, held)
+		for n := range held {
+			if _, pinned := pins[drawKey{r.at.group, n}]; !pinned {
+				pins[drawKey{r.at.group, n}] = r
+			}
+		}
+	}
+	for _, f := range w.fresh {
+		if r, pinned := pins[drawKey{f.at.group, f.n}]; pinned {
+			return overlapError(f.at.route, f.at.via, r)
+		}
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
-// spelled names the route, and the reference it reaches a draw by where its root edge is not
+func overlapError(route drawRoute, ref string, into pathRead) error {
-// that reference.
+	return fmt.Errorf("%s renders a level that %s reads a path into; name the fields you want instead, or draw them apart with a group", route.spelled(ref), into.at.route.spelled(into.a.name))
+}
+
+// spelled names the route, and the reference it reaches a draw by where its root edge is not that
+// reference.
 func (r drawRoute) spelled(ref string) string {
 	if ref == "" || ref == r.label {
 		return r.spelling

graph.go

@@ -196,7 +196,11 @@ func checkRenders(s nodeScope) error {
 	if err := s(heldCheck); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	if err := s((&drawCheck{}).check); err != nil {
+	fence := &drawCheck{}
+	if err := s(fence.checkGroup); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	if err := s(fence.checkDraws); err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
 	return s((&valueProof{}).checkDatatype)

hold.go

@@ -6,11 +6,12 @@ import (
 	"strings"
 )
 
-// heldCheck rejects every route to a held name except the ones that read its draw.
+// heldCheck rejects every route to a held sibling name except the ones that read its
-// An expansion holds one draw of that name; anything else that renders it draws
+// draw. An expansion holds one draw of that name; anything else that renders it draws
-// again, and the two disagree. checkNoOverlap settles the spellings within one
+// again, and the two disagree. checkNoOverlap settles the spellings within one format
-// format (a token, an operand); this settles the rest — a reference, whether it
+// (a token, an operand); this settles the rest — a reference, whether it sits in that
-// sits in that format or in anything the format renders, however deep.
+// format or in anything the format renders, however deep. A reference path is held
+// for the whole render instead, which drawCheck fences.
 func heldCheck(path string, n node) error {
 	t, ok := n.(*template)
 	if !ok || len(t.held) == 0 {
@@ -19,7 +20,7 @@ func heldCheck(path string, n node) error {
 	readers := boundReaders(t.format, t.bound, t.refs)
 	for _, head := range heldHeads(t) {
 		if _, isPath := t.bound[head]; isPath && isRef(head) {
-			continue // held for the whole render, which drawCheck fences
+			continue
 		}
 		if err := checkHeadHeld(t, head, readers); err != nil {
 			return fmt.Errorf("%s: %w", path, err)
@@ -178,12 +179,11 @@ func renders(n node, want, seen map[node]bool) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// checkNoOverlap rejects a format that both renders a level and reads a path into
+// checkNoOverlap rejects a format that both renders a sibling level and reads a path
-// it — {p} beside {p.first}, {p.addr} beside {p.addr.city}, {.p} beside
+// into it — {p} beside {p.first}, {p.addr} beside {p.addr.city}. The path reads the
-// {/sv_SE.p.first}. The path reads the level's held draw while rendering the level
+// level's held draw while rendering the level expands it afresh, so their values would
-// expands it afresh, so their values would disagree. Reads are compared by their
+// disagree. Reads are compared in sorted order, so which pair is reported does not
-// one spelling, in sorted order, so which pair is reported depends neither on how
+// depend on where the tokens sit.
-// a reference was written nor on where the tokens sit.
 func checkNoOverlap(format string, bound map[string]string, refs map[string]refBinding) error {
 	names := boundReaders(format, bound, refs)
 	// Stable over one format-order scan, so two readers of one name (a token and a
@@ -203,7 +203,7 @@ func checkNoOverlap(format string, bound map[string]string, refs map[string]refB
 // spelling, and how to name it.
 type reader struct{ name, path, label string }
 
-// boundReaders lists every way a format reaches a bound field, in the order the
+// boundReaders lists every way a format reaches a bound sibling field, in the order the
 // format writes them. An operand renders its field, so it names a level exactly
 // as a token does; one scan finds both, which is what puts them in one order.
 func boundReaders(format string, bound map[string]string, refs map[string]refBinding) []reader {
@@ -215,14 +215,14 @@ func boundReaders(format string, bound map[string]string, refs map[string]refBin
 		if fn, _, isFunc := funcCall(t.body); isFunc {
 			for _, operand := range tokenOperands(t.body) {
 				a := splitArm(operand, refs)
-				if _, isBound := bound[a.key]; isBound {
+				if _, isBound := bound[a.key]; isBound && !isRef(a.key) {
 					names = append(names, reader{a.name, a.path, fmt.Sprintf("%s operand %q", fn, operand)})
 				}
 			}
 			return nil
 		}
 		for _, a := range splitArms(t.body, refs) {
-			if _, isBound := bound[a.key]; isBound {
+			if _, isBound := bound[a.key]; isBound && !isRef(a.key) {
 				names = append(names, reader{a.name, a.path, "token {" + a.name + "}"})
 			}
 		}

inline.go

@@ -136,6 +136,9 @@ func inputValue(input string) (any, error) {
 // bindInline links an inline node's references against root and runs check over it, naming its
 // nodes from label.
 func bindInline(n node, label string, root map[string]node, check func(nodeScope) error) error {
+	if t, isTemplate := n.(*template); isTemplate && t.group != "" {
+		return fmt.Errorf("%s: group %q names nothing, since nothing can reference an inline template; drop it", label, t.group)
+	}
 	scope := inlineScope(n, label)
 	if err := linkNodeRefs(scope, root); err != nil {
 		return err
@@ -151,6 +154,7 @@ func linkNodeRefs(scope nodeScope, root map[string]node) error {
 		if !ok {
 			return nil
 		}
+		t.keyGroup("")
 		for _, name := range refTokens(t.format) {
 			sigil, rest, err := refShape(name)
 			if err != nil {

node.go

@@ -62,7 +62,8 @@ type template struct {
 	fromString  bool        // written as a JSON string rather than an object
 	readsColumn *columnRead // set when the format is one reference alone reading a record's column
 	record      bool        // compiled at the top without a repeat, so its fields are record columns
-	drawGroup   string      // the group its render reads reference paths in; "" keeps its caller's
+	group       string      // the group it draws in, as written; "" keeps its caller's
+	groupKey    string      // group keyed by its category once linked, what a render reads its reference paths under
 }
 
 func (*template) isNode() {}
@@ -248,7 +249,10 @@ func compileTemplate(m map[string]any, pos position) (node, error) {
 	if err := checkTokens(o.format, fields); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
-	t := &template{format: o.format, fields: fields, repeat: o.repeat, separator: o.separator, datatype: o.datatype, drawGroup: o.group, record: fieldPos == inColumn}
+	if err := checkNestedGroup(fields, o.group); err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	t := &template{format: o.format, fields: fields, repeat: o.repeat, separator: o.separator, datatype: o.datatype, group: o.group, record: fieldPos == inColumn}
 	if err := t.compileFormat(); err != nil {
 		return nil, err
 	}
@@ -280,7 +284,7 @@ func readOptions(m map[string]any, pos position) (templateOptions, error) {
 	if o.datatype, err = datatypeOf(m, pos); err != nil {
 		return o, err
 	}
-	if o.group, err = groupOf(m); err != nil {
+	if o.group, err = groupOf(m, repeat); err != nil {
 		return o, err
 	}
 	if sv, ok := m["separator"]; ok {

path.go

@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ func checkPath(n node, tail []string, level string) error {
 			switch {
 			case t.repeat > 1:
 				return fmt.Errorf("the level %q carries a repeat, which a path reading one draw of it cannot apply", name)
-			case t.drawGroup != "":
+			case t.group != "":
 				return fmt.Errorf("the level %q carries a group, which a path reading into it cannot apply", name)
 			}
 			return nil

reference.go

@@ -72,6 +72,7 @@ func refSegments(name string, folder []string) ([]string, error) {
 // error, never a random render-time one.
 func linkRefs(root map[string]node) error {
 	return eachTemplate(root, func(folder []string, path string, t *template) error {
+		t.keyGroup(strings.Join(strings.Split(path, ".")[:len(folder)+1], "."))
 		return linkTemplateRefs(folder, path, t, root)
 	})
 }

render.go

@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ func render(s *session, n node, sc drawScope) string {
 			if i > 0 {
 				b.WriteString(n.separator)
 			}
-			b.WriteString(expandAnew(s, n, sc.group))
+			b.WriteString(expandAnew(s, n))
 		}
 		return b.String()
 	default:
@@ -80,13 +80,13 @@ func render(s *session, n node, sc drawScope) string {
 	}
 }
 
-// expandAnew expands one repeat iteration of t as a render of its own, in group. Inlined into
+// expandAnew expands one repeat iteration of t as a render of its own, in no group. Inlined into
 // render's loop, its draw set would move to the heap.
 //
 //go:noinline
-func expandAnew(s *session, t *template, group string) string {
+func expandAnew(s *session, t *template) string {
 	var set drawSet
-	return expand(s, t, drawScope{set: &set, group: group})
+	return expand(s, t, drawScope{set: &set})
 }
 
 // pick selects one item. Uniform choices are O(1); weighted choices are an