diff --git a/builtins_test.go b/builtins_test.go
index b19c95d..ee72939 100644
--- a/builtins_test.go
+++ b/builtins_test.go
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ func TestBuiltinArgLimits(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{x}","x":"1","repeat":2000000000}`, // repeat -> multi-GB join
 	}
 	for _, tmpl := range bad {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, tmpl)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, tmpl); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want a limit rejection", tmpl)
 		}
 	}
@@ -226,12 +226,12 @@ func mustPanic(t *testing.T, name string, call func()) {
 
 func TestClassBuiltinArgs(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, bad := range []string{`"{digits(0)}"`, `"{digits(2000000000)}"`, `"{upper(-1)}"`, `"{lower(x)}"`, `"{digits()}"`, `"{upper(1,2)}"`} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want the arg rejected", bad)
 		}
 	}
 	for _, ok := range []string{`"{digits(1048576)}"`, `"{upper(1)}"`, `"{lower(26)}"`} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, ok)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, ok); err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v", ok, err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -313,7 +313,7 @@ func TestBuiltinDateArgs(t *testing.T) {
 		`"{time('x')}"`:                                       "text",
 		`"{date(1990-01-01,1990-12-31,'15:04')}"`:             "time('15:04')",
 	} {
-		_, err := compile(parse(t, tmpl))
+		_, err := linked(t, tmpl)
 		if err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error mentioning %q", tmpl, err, want)
 		}
@@ -427,7 +427,7 @@ func TestBuiltinCompileErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		`"{iban(US)}"`,         // unsupported country
 		`"{seq(a,b)}"`,         // seq takes at most one name
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want error", bad)
 		}
 	}
@@ -441,7 +441,7 @@ func TestArgErrorsNameTheSpelling(t *testing.T) {
 		`"{hex(99999999999999999999)}"`:     "exceeds the maximum",
 		`"{int(007,9)}"`:                    "write 7",
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error saying %q", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/calc_test.go b/calc_test.go
index 0ae7cd8..a43c159 100644
--- a/calc_test.go
+++ b/calc_test.go
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@ func TestCalcOverANeverNumericOperandIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{calc(x * 2)}","x":["a","b"]}`:       `"x"`,
 		`{"format":"{calc(x + y)}","x":"1","y":"{{2}}"}`: `"{2}"`,
 	} {
-		_, err := compile(parse(t, src))
+		_, err := linked(t, src)
 		if err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "never a number") {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want the operand rejected naming %s", src, err, want)
 		}
@@ -240,7 +240,7 @@ func TestCalcOverANeverNumericOperandIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{calc(x * 2)}","x":["1","abc"]}`,
 		`{"format":"{calc(x * 2)}","x":"{digits(2)}"}`,
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, ok)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, ok); err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want it accepted", ok, err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -255,7 +255,7 @@ func TestCalcConstantZeroDivisorIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{calc((a/0)+b)}","a":"1","b":"2"}`:   "divides by 0",
 		`{"format":"{calc(a/-0)}","a":"1"}`:              "divides by -0",
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want the constant zero divisor rejected naming %q", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
@@ -284,7 +284,7 @@ func TestCalcCompileErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		`"{calc(1, x)}"`,    // decimals arg not an integer
 		`"{calc(1, -1)}"`,   // decimals negative
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want error", bad)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/datatype_test.go b/datatype_test.go
index 61143b7..46824bb 100644
--- a/datatype_test.go
+++ b/datatype_test.go
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ func TestDatatypeAndNullSitOnlyInAColumn(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"","age":[null,{"format":"{int(18,99)}","datatype":"integer","weight":9}]}`,
 		`{"format":"","pick":[[null,"a"],"b"]}`,
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want a column to take a datatype and null", src, err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ func TestDatatypeAndNullSitOnlyInAColumn(t *testing.T) {
 		`null`: `so write ""`,
 		`{"format":"{p}","p":{"format":"{x}","x":[null,"a"]}}`: `so write ""`,
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error containing %q", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/fejkdata_test.go b/fejkdata_test.go
index bbefb3b..f108855 100644
--- a/fejkdata_test.go
+++ b/fejkdata_test.go
@@ -113,10 +113,20 @@ func parse(t *testing.T, s string) any {
 	return v
 }
 
-// compiled parses and compiles a JSON fragment into a node.
-func compiled(t *testing.T, s string) node {
+// linked compiles a JSON fragment and links it against no data.
+func linked(t *testing.T, s string) (node, error) {
 	t.Helper()
 	n, err := compile(parse(t, s))
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	return n, linkNodeRefs(inlineScope(n, "template"), nil)
+}
+
+// compiled parses, compiles and links a JSON fragment into a node.
+func compiled(t *testing.T, s string) node {
+	t.Helper()
+	n, err := linked(t, s)
 	if err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("compile %q: %v", s, err)
 	}
diff --git a/format_test.go b/format_test.go
index 8df1f38..eae7414 100644
--- a/format_test.go
+++ b/format_test.go
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ func TestStringIsAFormat(t *testing.T) {
 	if got := mustRender(t, f, `"{digits(3)}"`); !regexp.MustCompile(`^[0-9]{3}$`).MatchString(got) {
 		t.Errorf(`render("{digits(3)}") = %q, want three digits`, got)
 	}
-	if _, err := compile(parse(t, `"{x}"`)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), `no field "x"`) {
+	if _, err := linked(t, `"{x}"`); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), `no field "x"`) {
 		t.Errorf(`compile("{x}") = %v, want a no-field error`, err)
 	}
 }
@@ -51,7 +51,7 @@ func TestBraceEscapes(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{a{b}","a":"Q"}`: "'{'",
 		`"{x"`:                       "unterminated",
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error mentioning %s", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ func TestFormatCompileErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		`"{int(1)}"`,                 // wrong arity
 		`"{float(1,2)}"`,             // wrong arity
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want error", bad)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/hold_test.go b/hold_test.go
index 06c691e..5419a42 100644
--- a/hold_test.go
+++ b/hold_test.go
@@ -743,7 +743,7 @@ func TestRepeatedBareTokenOfAHeldNameIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{n} + {n} = {calc(n * 2)}","n":["1","2"]}`:                                 "write {n} once",
 		`{"format":"{p.a} {q} {q} {lowercase(q)}","p":{"format":"{a}","a":"1"},"q":["A","B"]}`: "write {q} once",
 	} {
-		_, err := compile(parse(t, src))
+		_, err := linked(t, src)
 		if err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "holds") {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want the repeated token rejected naming %s", src, err, want)
 		}
@@ -754,7 +754,7 @@ func TestRepeatedBareTokenOfAHeldNameIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{net} x {qty} = {calc(net * qty, 2)}","net":["19.99","5.00"],"qty":["3","7"]}`,
 		`{"format":"{uppercase(w)} {uppercase(w)}","w":["a","b"]}`,
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, ok)); err != nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, ok); err != nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want it accepted", ok, err)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/node_test.go b/node_test.go
index f0cee3d..f939618 100644
--- a/node_test.go
+++ b/node_test.go
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import (
 )
 
 func TestWeightZeroIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
-	_, err := compile(parse(t, `[{"format":"X","weight":0},"Y"]`))
+	_, err := linked(t, `[{"format":"X","weight":0},"Y"]`)
 	if err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "weight 0") || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "remove") {
 		t.Fatalf("compile(weight 0) = %v, want it rejected naming the fix", err)
 	}
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ func TestNodeCompileErrors(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"x","repeat":2,"separator":5}`,                       // non-string separator
 		`{"format":"{x}","x":"v","repeat":2,"separator":""}`,            // separator "" is the default
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want error", bad)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/one_spelling_test.go b/one_spelling_test.go
index 6f1f559..8673873 100644
--- a/one_spelling_test.go
+++ b/one_spelling_test.go
@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestOneItemChoiceIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 	for _, src := range []string{`["x"]`, `[{"format":"{d}","d":"x"}]`, `{"format":"{w}","w":["only"]}`} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "one-item choice") {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), "one-item choice") {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want the one-item choice rejected", src, err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -20,11 +20,11 @@ func TestRepeatedChoiceItemIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{w}","w":["", "", "x"]}`:                  `{ "format": "", "weight": 2 }`,
 		`{"format":"","w":[null,null,"a"]}`:                   "a null takes no weight",
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error naming %s", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
-	if _, err := compile(parse(t, `[{"format":"a","weight":2}, "b"]`)); err != nil {
+	if _, err := linked(t, `[{"format":"a","weight":2}, "b"]`); err != nil {
 		t.Errorf("compile(weighted a, b) = %v", err)
 	}
 }
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ func TestInertObjectIsRejected(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{x}","x":{"format":"{y}","y":"v","drawGroup":""}}`: `drawGroup "" is the default`,
 		`{"format":"{x}","x":{"format":"{y}","y":"v","drawGroup":1}}`:  "drawGroup must be a string",
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, src)); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
+		if _, err := linked(t, src); err == nil || !strings.Contains(err.Error(), want) {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = %v, want an error mentioning %s", src, err, want)
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/transform_test.go b/transform_test.go
index 740212d..668ea6f 100644
--- a/transform_test.go
+++ b/transform_test.go
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ func TestTransformArgs(t *testing.T) {
 		`{"format":"{lowercase(hex(2))}","x":"v"}`,
 		`{"format":"{lowercase(x)} {x.a}","x":{"format":"{a}","a":"1"}}`,
 	} {
-		if _, err := compile(parse(t, bad)); err == nil {
+		if _, err := linked(t, bad); err == nil {
 			t.Errorf("compile(%s) = nil error, want it rejected", bad)
 		}
 	}